Live and Let Live

The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet 1 The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet Ed Krol [email  protected] cso. uiuc. edu Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet 2 This document was produced through funding of the National Science Foundation. Copyright (C) 1987, by the Board of Trustees of The University of Illinois. Permission to duplicate this document, in whole or part, is granted provided reference is made to the source and this copyright is included in whole copies. This document assumes that one is familiar with the workings of a non-connected simple IP network (e. . a few 4. 2 BSD systems on an Ethernet not connected to anywhere else). Appendix A contains remedial information to get one to this point. Its purpose is to get that person, familiar with a simple net, versed in the â€Å"oral tradition† of the Internet to the point that that net can be connected to the Internet with little dang er to either. It is not a tutorial, it consists of pointers to other places, literature, and hints which are not normally documented. Since the Internet is a dynamic environment, changes to this document will be made regularly. The author welcomes comments and suggestions.This is especially true of terms for the glossary (definitions are not necessary). In the beginning there was the ARPAnet, a wide area experimental network connecting hosts and terminal servers together. Procedures were set up to regulate the allocation of addresses and to create voluntary standards for the network. As local area networks became more pervasive, many hosts became gateways to local networks. A network layer to allow the interoperation of these networks was developed and called IP (Internet Protocol). Over time other groups created long haul IP based networks (NASA, NSF, states†¦ ). These nets, too, interoperate because of IP.The collection of all of these interoperating networks is the Internet. Two groups do much of the research and information work of the Internet (ISI and SRI). ISI (the Informational Sciences Institute) does much of the research, standardization, and allocation work of the Internet. SRI International provides information services for the Internet. In fact, after you are connected to the Internet most of the information in this document can be retrieved from the Network Information Center (NIC) run by SRI. Operating the Internet Each network, be it the ARPAnet, NSFnet or a regional network, has its own operations center.The ARPAnet is run by Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet BBN, Inc. under contract from DARPA. Their facility is called the Network Operations Center or NOC. Cornell University temporarily operates NSFnet (called the Network Information Service Center, NISC). It goes on to the -2regionals having similar facilities to monitor and keep watch over the goings on of their portion of the Internet. In addition, they all should have some knowledge of what is happening to the Internet in total.If a problem comes up, it is suggested that a campus network liaison should contact the network operator to which he is directly connected. That is, if you are connected to a regional network (which is gatewayed to the NSFnet, which is connected to the ARPAnet†¦ ) and have a problem, you should contact your regional network operations center. 3 RFCs The internal workings of the Internet are defined by a set of documents called RFCs (Request for Comments). The general process for creating an RFC is for someone wanting something formalized to write a document describing the issue and mailing it to Jon Postel ([email  protected] edu).He acts as a referee for the proposal. It is then commented upon by all those wishing to take part in the discussion (electronically of course). It may go through multiple revisions. Should it be generally accepted as a good idea, it will be assigned a number and filed with the RFCs. The RFCs can be divided into five groups: required, suggested, directional, informational and obsolete. Required RFC's (e. g. RFC-791, The Internet Protocol) must be implemented on any host connected to the Internet. Suggested RFCs are generally implemented by network hosts. Lack of them does not preclude access to the Internet, but may impact its usability.RFC-793 (Transmission Control Protocol) is a suggested RFC. Directional RFCs were discussed and agreed to, but their application has never come into wide use. This may be due to the lack of wide need for the specific application (RFC-937 The Post Office Protocol) or that, although technically superior, ran against other pervasive approaches (RFC-891 Hello). It is suggested that should the facility be required by a particular site, animplementation be done in accordance with the RFC. This insures that, should the idea be one whose time has come, the implementation will be in accordance with some standard and will be generally usable.Informational RFCs contain factual information about the Internet and its operation (RFC-990, Assigned Numbers). Finally, as the Internet and technology have grown, some RFCs have become unnecessary. These obsolete RFCs cannot be ignored, however. Frequently when a change is made to some RFC that causes a new one to be issued obsoleting others, the new RFC only contains explanations and motivations for the change. Understanding the model on which the whole facility is based may involve reading the original and subsequent RFCs Get any book for free on: www. Abika. comThe Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet on the topic. -3(Appendix B contains a list of what are considered to be the major RFCs necessary for understanding the Internet). 4 The Network Information Center The NIC is a facility available to all Internet users which provides information to the community. There are three means of NIC contact: network, telephone, and mail. The network accesses are t he most prevalent. Interactive access is frequently used to do queries of NIC service overviews, look up user and host names, and scan lists of NIC documents. It is available by using %telnet sri-nic. rpa on a BSD system and following the directions provided by a user friendly prompter. From poking around in the databases provided one might decide that a document named NETINFO:NUG. DOC (The Users Guide to the ARPAnet) would be worth having. It could be retrieved via an anonymous FTP. An anonymous FTP would proceed something like the following. (The dialogue may vary slightly depending on the implementation of FTP you are using). %ftp sri-nic. arpa Connected to sri-nic. arpa. 220 SRI_NIC. ARPA FTP Server Process 5Z(47)-6 at Wed 17-Jun-87 12:00 PDT Name (sri-nic. arpa:myname): anonymous 331 ANONYMOUS user ok, send real ident as password.Password: myname 230 User ANONYMOUS logged in at Wed 17-Jun-87 12:01 PDT, job 15. ftp; get netinfo:nug. doc 200 Port 18. 144 at host 128. 174. 5. 50 a ccepted. 150 ASCII retrieve of NUG. DOC. 11 started. 226 Transfer Completed 157675 (8) bytes transferred local: netinfo:nug. doc remote:netinfo:nug. doc 157675 bytes in 4. 5e+02 seconds (0. 34 Kbytes/s) ftp; quit 221 QUIT command received. Goodbye. (Another good initial document to fetch is NETINFO:WHAT-THE-NIC-DOES. TXT)! Questions of the NIC or problems with services can be asked of or reported to using electronic mail. The following addresses can be used: [email  protected]ARPA requests [email  protected] ARPA General user assistance, document User registration and WHOIS updates Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet [email  protected] ARPA Hostname and domain changes and updates [email  protected] ARPA SRI-NIC computer operations [email  protected] ARPA Comments on NIC publications and services -4For people without network access, or if the number of documents is large, many of the NIC documents are available in printed form for a small charge. One frequently ordered document for starting sites is a compendium of major RFCs.Telephone access is used primarily for questions or problems with network access. (See appendix B for mail/telephone contact numbers). 5 The NSFnet Network Service Center The NSFnet Network Service Center (NNSC) is funded by NSF to provide a first level of aid to users of NSFnet should they have questions or encounter problems traversing the network. It is run by BBN Inc. Karen Roubicek ([email  protected] nsf. net) is the NNSC user liaison. The NNSC, which currently has information and documents online and in printed form, plans to distribute news through network mailing lists, bulletins, newsletters, and online reports.The NNSC also maintains a database of contact points and sources of additional information about NSFnet component networks and supercomputer centers. Prospective or current users who do not know whom to call concerning questions about NSFnet use, should contact the NN SC. The NNSC will answer general questions, and, for detailed information relating to specific components of the Internet, will help users find the appropriate contact for further assistance. (Appendix B) Mail Reflectors The way most people keep up to date on network news is through subscription to a number of mail reflectors.Mail reflectors are special electronic mailboxes which, when they receive a message, resend it to a list of other mailboxes. This in effect creates a discussion group on a particular topic. Each subscriber sees all the mail forwarded by the reflector, and if one wants to put his â€Å"two cents† in sends a message with the comments to the reflector†¦. The general format to subscribe to a mail list is to find the address reflector and append the string -REQUEST to the mailbox name (not the host name). For example, if you wanted to take part in the mailing list for NSFnet reflected by [email  protected]NSF. NET, one sends a request to Get any book f or free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet [email  protected] NSF. NET. This may be a wonderful scheme, but the problem is that you must know the list exists in the first place. It is suggested that, if you are interested, you read the mail from one list (like NSFNET) and you will probably become familiar with the existence of others. A registration service for mail reflectors is provided by the NIC in the files NETINFO:INTEREST-GROUPS-1. TXT, NETINFO:INTEREST-GROUPS-2. TXT, and NETINFO:INTEREST-GROUPS3.TXT. The NSFNET mail reflector is targeted at those people who have a day to day interest in the news of the NSFnet (the backbone, regional network, and Internet inter-connection site workers). The messages are reflected by a central location and are sent as separate messages to each subscriber. This creates hundreds of messages on the wide area networks where bandwidth is the scarcest. There are two ways in which a campus could spread the news and not cause these messages to inundate the wide area networks. One is to re-reflect the message on the campus.That is, set up a reflector on a local machine which forwards the message to a campus distribution list. The other is to create an alias on a campus machine which places the messages into a notesfile on the topic. Campus users who want the information could access the notesfile and see the messages that have been sent since their last access. One might also elect to have the campus wide area network liaison screen the messages in either case and only forward those which are considered of merit. Either of these schemes allows one message to be sent to the campus, while allowing wide distribution within. Address Allocation Before a local network can be connected to the Internet it must be allocated a unique IP address. These addresses are allocated by ISI. The allocation process consists of getting an application form received from ISI. (Send a message to [email  protected] arpa and ask for the template for a connected address). This template is filled out and mailed back to hostmaster. An address is allocated and e-mailed back to you. This can also be done by postal mail (Appendix B). IP addresses are 32 bits long. It is usually written as four decimal numbers separated by periods (e. . , 192. 17. 5. 100). Each number is the value of an octet of the 32 bits. It was seen from the beginning that some networks might choose to organize themselves as very flat (one net with a lot of nodes) and some might organize hierarchically -6(many interconnected nets with fewer nodes each and a backbone). Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet To provide for these cases, addresses were differentiated into class A, B, and C networks. This classification had to with the interpretation of the octets.Class A networks have the first octet as a network address and the remaining three as a host address on that network. Class C addresses have thre e octets of network address and one of host. Class B is split two and two. Therefore, there is an address space for a few large nets, a reasonable number of medium nets and a large number of small nets. The top two bits in the first octet are coded to tell the address format. All of the class A nets have been allocated. So one has to choose between Class B and Class C when placing an order. (There are also class D (Multicast) and E (Experimental) formats.Multicast addresses will likely come into greater use in the near future, but are not frequently used now). In the past sites requiring multiple network addresses requested multiple discrete addresses (usually Class C). This was done because much of the software available (not ably 4. 2BSD) could not deal with subnetted addresses. Information on how to reach a particular network (routing information) must be stored in Internet gateways and packet switches. Some of these nodes have a limited capability to store and exchange routing i nformation (limited to about 300 networks).Therefore, it is suggested that any campus announce (make known to the Internet) no more than two discrete network numbers. If a campus expects to be constrained by this, it should consider subnetting. Subnetting (RFC-932) allows one to announce one address to the Internet and use a set of addresses on the campus. Basically, one defines a mask which allows the network to differentiate between the network portion and host portion of the address. By using a different mask on the Internet and the campus, the address can be interpreted in multiple ways.For example, if a campus requires two networks internally and has the 32,000 addresses beginning 128. 174. X. X (a Class B address) allocated to it, the campus could allocate 128. 174. 5. X to one part of campus and 128. 174. 10. X to another. By advertising 128. 174 to the Internet with a subnet mask of FF. FF. 00. 00, the Internet would treat these two addresses as one. Within the campus a mask of FF. FF. FF. 00 would be used, allowing the campus to treat the addresses as separate entities. (In reality you don't pass the subnet mask of FF. FF. 00. 0 to the Internet, the octet meaning is implicit in its being a class B address). A word of warning is necessary. Not all systems know how to do subnetting. Some 4. 2BSD systems require additional software. 4. 3BSD systems subnet as released. Other devices -7and operating systems vary in the problems they have dealing with subnets. Frequently these machines can be used as a leaf on a network but not as a gateway within the subnetted portion of the network. As time passes and more systems become 4. 3BSD based, these problems should disappear. 7 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. om The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet There has been some confusion in the past over the format of an IP broadcast address. Some machines used an address of all zeros to mean broadcast and some all ones. This was confusing when machines of both type were connected to the same network. The broadcast address of all ones has been adopted to end the grief. Some systems (e. g. 4. 2 BSD) allow one to choose the format of the broadcast address. If a system does allow this choice, care should be taken that the all ones format is chosen. (This is explained in RFC-1009 and RFC-1010). 8Internet Problems There are a number of problems with the Internet. Solutions to the problems range from software changes to long term research projects. Some of the major ones are detailed below: Number of Networks When the Internet was designed it was to have about 50 connected networks. With the explosion of networking, the number is now approaching 300. The software in a group of critical gateways (called the core gateways of the ARPAnet) are not able to pass or store much more than that number. In the short term, core reallocation and recoding has raised the number slightly.By the summer of '88 the current PDP-11 core gateways will be replaced with BB N Butterfly gateways which will solve the problem. Routing Issues Along with sheer mass of the data necessary to route packets to a large number of networks, there are many problems with the updating, stability, and optimality of the routing algorithms. Much research is being done in the area, but the optimal solution to these routing problems is still years away. In most cases the the routing we have today works, but sub-optimally and sometimes unpredictably. -8-Trust Issues Gateways exchange network routing information. Currently, most gateways accept on faith that the information provided about the state of the network is correct. In the past this was not a big problem since most of the gateways belonged to a single administrative entity (DARPA). Now with multiple wide area networks under different administrations, a rogue gateway somewhere in the net could cripple the Internet. There is design work going on to solve both the problem of Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com T he Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet gateway doing unreasonable things and providing enough information to reasonably route data between multiply connected networks (multi-homed networks). Capacity & Congestion Many portions of the ARPAnet are very congested during the busy part of the day. Additional links are planned to alleviate this congestion, but the implementation will take a few months. 9 These problems and the future direction of the Internet are determined by the Internet Architect (Dave Clark of MIT) being advised by the Internet Activities Board (IAB).This board is composed of chairmen of a number of committees with responsibility for various specialized areas of the Internet. The committees composing the IAB and their chairmen are: Committee Chair Autonomous Networks Deborah Estrin End-to-End Services Bob Braden Internet Architecture Dave Mills Internet Engineering Phil Gross EGP2 Mike Petry Name Domain Planning Doug Kingston Gateway Monitoring Craig Partridge Internic Jake Feinler Performance & Congestion ControlRobert Stine NSF Routing Chuck Hedrick Misc. MilSup Issues Mike St.Johns Privacy Steve Kent IRINET Requirements Vint Cerf Robustness & Survivability Jim Mathis Scientific Requirements Barry Leiner Note that under Internet Engineering, there are a set of task forces and chairs to look at short term concerns. The chairs of these task forces are not part of the IAB. -9Routing Routing is the algorithm by which a network directs a packet from its source to its destination. To appreciate the problem, watch a small child trying to find a table in a restaurant. From the adult point of view the structure of the dining room is seen and an optimal route easily chosen.The child, however, is presented with a set of paths between tables where a good path, let alone the optimal one to the goal is not discernible. *** A little more background might be appropriate. IP gateways (more correctly routers) are boxes which have connections to multiple networks and pass traffic between these nets. They decide how the packet is to be sent based on the information in the IP header of the packet and the state of the network. Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet Each interface on a router has an unique address appropriate to the network to which it is connected.The information in the IP header which is used is primarily the destination address. Other information (e. g. type of service) is largely ignored at this time. The state of the network is determined by the routers passing information among themselves. The distribution of the database (what each node knows), the form of the updates, and metrics used to measure the value of a connection, are the parameters which determine the characteristics of a routing protocol. Under some algorithms each node in the network has complete knowledge of the state of the network (the adult algorithm).This implies the nodes must have larger amounts of local storage and enough CPU to search the large tables in a short enough time (remember this must be done for each packet). Also, routing updates usually contain only changes to the existing information (or you spend a large amount of the network capacity passing around megabyte routing updates). This type of algorithm has several problems. Since the only way the routing information can be passed around is across the network and the propagation time is non-trivial, the view of the network at each node is a correct historical view of the network at varying times in the past. The adult algorithm, but rather than looking directly at the dining area, looking at a photograph of the dining room. One is likely to pick the optimal route and find a bus-cart has moved in to block the path after the photo was taken). These inconsistencies can cause circular routes (called routing loops) where once a packet enters it is routed in a closed path until its time to live (TTL) field expires and it is discarded. Other algorithms may know about only a subset of the network. To prevent loops in these protocols, they are usually used in a hierarchical network.They know completely about their own area, but to leave that area they go to one particular place (the default gateway). Typically these are used in smaller networks (campus, regional†¦ ). -10Routing protocols in current use: Static (no protocol-table/default routing) Don't laugh. It is probably the most reliable, easiest to implement, and least likely to get one into trouble for a small network or a leaf on the Internet. This is, also, the only method available on some CPU-operating system combinations.If a host is connected to an Ethernet which has only one gateway off of it, one should make that the default gateway for the host and do no other routing. (Of course that gateway may pass the reachablity information somehow on the other side of itself). One word of warning, it is only with extreme caution that one should use static ro utes in the middle of a network 10 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet which is also using dynamic routing. The routers passing dynamic information are sometimes confused by conflicting dynamic and static routes.If your host is on an ethernet with multiple routers to other networks on it and the routers are doing dynamic routing among themselves, it is usually better to take part in the dynamic routing than to use static routes. 11 RIP RIP is a routing protocol based on XNS (Xerox Network System) adapted for IP networks. It is used by many routers (Proteon, cisco, UB†¦ ) and many BSD Unix systems BSD systems typically run a program called â€Å"routed† to exchange information with other systems running RIP. RIP works best for nets of small diameter where the links are of equal speed.The reason for this is that the metric used to determine which path is best is the hop-count. A hop is a traversal across a gateway. So, all machin es on the same Ethernet are zero hops away. If a router connects connects two networks directly, a machine on the other side of the router is one hop away†¦. As the routing information is passed through a gateway, the gateway adds one to the hop counts to keep them consistent across the network. The diameter of a network is defined as the largest hop-count possible within a network. Unfortunately, a hop count of 16 is defined as infinity in RIP meaning the link is down.Therefore, RIP will not allow hosts separated by more than 15 gateways in the RIP space to communicate. The other problem with hop-count metrics is that if links have different speeds, that difference is not -11reflected in the hop-count. So a one hop satellite link (with a . 5 sec delay) at 56kb would be used instead of a two hop T1 connection. Congestion can be viewed as a decrease in the efficacy of a link. So, as a link gets more congested, RIP will still know it is the best hop-count route and congest it eve n more by throwing more packets on the queue for that link.The protocol is not well documented. A group of people are working on producing an RFC to both define the current RIP and to do some extensions to it to allow it to better cope with larger networks. Currently, the best documentation for RIP appears to be the code to BSD â€Å"routed†. Routed The ROUTED program, which does RIP for 4. 2BSD systems, Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet has many options. One of the most frequently used is: â€Å"routed -q† (quiet mode) which means listen to RIP information but never broadcast it.This would be used by a machine on a network with multiple RIP speaking gateways. It allows the host to determine which gateway is best (hopwise) to use to reach a distant network. (Of course you might want to have a default gateway to prevent having to pass all the addresses known to the Internet around with RIP). There are two ways to insert stat ic routes into â€Å"routed†, the â€Å"/etc/gateways† file and the â€Å"route add† command. Static routes are useful if you know how to reach a distant network, but you are not receiving that route using RIP. For the most part the â€Å"route add† command is preferable to use.The reason for this is that the command adds the route to that machine's routing table but does not export it through RIP. The â€Å"/etc/gateways† file takes precedence over any routing information received through a RIP update. It is also broadcast as fact in RIP updates produced by the host without question, so if a mistake is made in the â€Å"/etc/gateways† file, that mistake will soon permeate the RIP space and may bring the network to its knees. One of the problems with â€Å"routed† is that you have very little control over what gets broadcast and what doesn't.Many times in larger networks where various parts of the network are under different administr ative controls, you would like to pass on through RIP only nets which you receive from RIP and you know are reasonable. This prevents people from adding IP addresses to the network which may be illegal and you being responsible for passing them on to the Internet. This -12type of reasonability checks are not available with â€Å"routed† and leave it usable, but inadequate for large networks. 12 Hello (RFC-891) Hello is a routing protocol which was designed and implemented in a experimental software router called a â€Å"Fuzzball† hich runs on a PDP-11. It does not have wide usage, but is the routing protocol currently used on the NSFnet backbone. The data transferred between nodes is similar to RIP (a list of networks and their metrics). The metric, however, is milliseconds of delay. This allows Hello to be used over nets of various link speeds and performs better in congestive situations. One of the most interesting side effects of Hello based networks is their great timekeeping ability. If you consider the problem of measuring delay on a link for the metric, you find that it is not an easy thing toGet any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet do. You cannot measure round trip time since the return link may be more congested, of a different speed, or even not there. It is not really feasible for each node on the network to have a builtin WWV (nationwide radio time standard) receiver. So, you must design an algorithm to pass around time between nodes over the network links where the delay in transmission can only be approximated. Hello routers do this and in a nationwide network maintain synchronized time within milliseconds. 13Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP RFC-904) EGP is not strictly a routing protocol, it is a reachability protocol. It tells only if nets can be reached through a particular gateway, not how good the connection is. It is the standard by which gateways to local nets inform the ARPAnet of the net s they can reach. There is a metric passed around by EGP but its usage is not standardized formally. Its typical value is value is 1 to 8 which are arbitrary goodness of link values understood by the internal DDN gateways. The smaller the value the better and a value of 8 being unreachable.A quirk of the protocol prevents distinguishing between 1 and 2, 3 and 4†¦ , so the usablity of this as a metric is as three values and unreachable. Within NSFnet the values used are 1, 3, and unreachable. Many routers talk EGP so they can be used for ARPAnet gateways. -13Gated So we have regional and campus networks talking RIP among themselves, the NSFnet backbone talking Hello, and the DDN speaking EGP. How do they interoperate? In the beginning there was static routing, assembled into the Fuzzball software configured for each site.The problem with doing static routing in the middle of the network is that it is broadcast to the Internet whether it is usable or not. Therefore, if a net beco mes unreachable and you try to get there, dynamic routing will immediately issue a net unreachable to you. Under static routing the routers would think the net could be reached and would continue trying until the application gave up (in 2 or more minutes). Mark Fedor of Cornell ([email  protected] tn. cornell. edu) attempted to solve these problems with a replacement for â€Å"routed† called â€Å"gated†. â€Å"Gated† talks RIP to RIP speaking hosts, EGP to EGP speakers, and Hello to Hello'ers.These speakers frequently all live on one Ethernet, but luckily (or unluckily) cannot understand each others ruminations. In addition, under configuration file control it can filter the conversion. For example, one can produce a Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet configuration saying announce RIP nets via Hello only if they are specified in a list and are reachable by way of a RIP broadcast as well. This means that if a rogue network appears in your local site's RIP space, it won't be passed through to the Hello side of the world.There are also configuration options to do static routing and name trusted gateways. This may sound like the greatest thing since sliced bread, but there is a catch called metric conversion. You have RIP measuring in hops, Hello measuring in milliseconds, and EGP using arbitrary small numbers. The big questions is how many hops to a millisecond, how many milliseconds in the EGP number 3†¦. Also, remember that infinity (unreachability) is 16 to RIP, 30000 or so to Hello, and 8 to the DDN with EGP. Getting all these metrics to work well together is no small feat.If done incorrectly and you translate an RIP of 16 into an EGP of 6, everyone in the ARPAnet will still think your gateway can reach the unreachable and will send every packet in the world your way. For these reasons, Mark requests that you consult closely with him when configuring and using â€Å"gated†. -14â € ³Names† All routing across the network is done by means of the IP address associated with a packet. Since humans find it difficult to remember addresses like 128. 174. 5. 50, a symbolic name register was set up at the NIC where people would say â€Å"I would like my host to be named ‘uiucuxc'†.Machines connected to the Internet across the nation would connect to the NIC in the middle of the night, check modification dates on the hosts file, and if modified move it to their local machine. With the advent of workstations and micros, changes to the host file would have to be made nightly. It would also be very labor intensive and consume a lot of network bandwidth. RFC-882 and a number of others describe domain name service, a distributed data base system for mapping names into addresses. We must look a little more closely into what's in a name. First, note that an address specifies a particular connection on a specific network.If the machine moves, the address c hanges. Second, a machine can have one or more names and one or more network addresses (connections) to different networks. Names point to a something which does useful work (i. e. the machine) and IP addresses point to an interface on that provider. A name is a purely symbolic representation of a list of addresses on the network. If a machine moves to a different network, the addresses will change but the name could remain the same. Domain names are tree structured names with the root of the tree at the right. For example: 14 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. om The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet 15 uxc. cso. uiuc. edu is a machine called ‘uxc' (purely arbitrary), within the subdomains method of allocation of the U of I) and ‘uiuc' (the University of Illinois at Urbana), registered with ‘edu' (the set of educational institutions). A simplified model of how a name is resolved is that on the user's machine there is a resolver. The resolver knows how to contac t across the network a root name server. Root servers are the base of the tree structured data retrieval system. They know who is responsible for handling first level domains (e. g. ‘edu').What root servers to use is an installation parameter. From the root server the resolver finds out who provides ‘edu' service. It contacts the ‘edu' name server which supplies it with a list of addresses of servers for the subdomains (like ‘uiuc'). This action is repeated with the subdomain servers until the final subdomain returns a list of addresses of interfaces on the host in question. The user's machine then has its choice of which of these addresses to use for communication. -15A group may apply for its own domain name (like ‘uiuc' above). This is done in a manner similar to the IP address allocation.The only requirements are that the requestor have two machines reachable from the Internet, which will act as name servers for that domain. Those servers could also act as servers for subdomains or other servers could be designated as such. Note that the servers need not be located in any particular place, as long as they are reachable for name resolution. (U of I could ask Michigan State to act on its behalf and that would be fine). The biggest problem is that someone must do maintenance on the database. If the machine is not convenient, that might not be done in a timely fashion.The other thing to note is that once the domain is allocated to an administrative entity, that entity can freely allocate subdomains using what ever manner it sees fit. The Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND) Server implements the Internet name server for UNIX systems. The name server is a distributed data base system that allows clients to name resources and to share that information with other network hosts. BIND is integrated with 4. 3BSD and is used to lookup and store host names, addresses, mail agents, host information, and more. It replaces the â€Å"/etc/ho sts† file for host name lookup.BIND is still an evolving program. To keep up with reports on operational problems, future design decisions, etc, join the BIND mailing list by sending a request to â€Å"[email  protected] Berkeley. EDU†. BIND can also be obtained via anonymous FTP from ucbarpa. berkley. edu. There are several advantages in using BIND. One of the most important is that it frees a host from relying on â€Å"/etc/hosts† Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet being up to date and complete. Within the . uiuc. edu domain, only a few hosts are included in the host table distributed by SRI.The remainder are listed locally within the BIND tables on uxc. cso. uiuc. edu (the server machine for most of the . uiuc. edu domain). All are equally reachable from any other Internet host running BIND. BIND can also provide mail forwarding information for interior hosts not directly reachable from the Internet. These hosts c an either be on non-advertised networks, or not connected to a network at all, as in the case of UUCP-reachable hosts. More information on BIND is available in the â€Å"Name Server Operations Guide for BIND† in â€Å"UNIX System Manager's Manual†, 4. 3BSD release.There are a few special domains on the network, like SRINIC. ARPA. The ‘arpa' domain is historical, referring to hosts registered in the old hosts database at the NIC. There are others of the form NNSC. NSF. NET. These special domains are used sparingly and require ample justification. They refer to servers under the administrative control of -16the network rather than any single organization. This allows for the actual server to be moved around the net while the user interface to that machine remains constant. That is, should BBN relinquish control of the NNSC, the new provider would be pointed to by that name.In actuality, the domain system is a much more general and complex system than has been descr ibed. Resolvers and some servers cache information to allow steps in the resolution to be skipped. Information provided by the servers can be arbitrary, not merely IP addresses. This allows the system to be used both by non-IP networks and for mail, where it may be necessary to give information on intermediate mail bridges. 16 What's wrong with Berkeley Unix University of California at Berkeley has been funded by DARPA to modify the Unix system in a number of ways.Included in these modifications is support for the Internet protocols. In earlier versions (e. g. BSD 4. 2) there was good support for the basic Internet protocols (TCP, IP, SMTP, ARP) which allowed it to perform nicely on IP ethernets and smaller Internets. There were deficiencies, however, when it was connected to complicated networks. Most of these problems have been resolved under the newest release (BSD 4. 3). Since it is the springboard from which many vendors have launched Unix implementations (either by porting the existing code or by using it as a model), many implementations (e. g.Ultrix) are still based on BSD 4. 2. Therefore, many implementations still exist with the BSD 4. 2 problems. As time goes on, when BSD 4. 3 trickles through Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet vendors as new release, many of the problems will be resolved. Following is a list of some problem scenarios and their handling under each of these releases. ICMP redirects Under the Internet model, all a system needs to know to get anywhere in the Internet is its own address, the address of where it wants to go, and how to reach a gateway which knows about the Internet.It doesn't have to be the best gateway. If the system is on a network with multiple gateways, and a host sends a packet for delivery to a gateway which feels another directly connected gateway is more appropriate, the gateway sends the sender a message. This message is an ICMP redirect, which politely says â€Å"I' ll deliver this message for you, but you really ought to use that gateway over there to reach this host†. BSD 4. 2 ignores these messages. This creates more stress on the gateways and the local network, since for every packet -17sent, the gateway sends a packet to the originator.BSD 4. 3 uses the redirect to update its routing tables, will use the route until it times out, then revert to the use of the route it thinks is should use. The whole process then repeats, but it is far better than one per packet. Trailers An application (like FTP) sends a string of octets to TCP which breaks it into chunks, and adds a TCP header. TCP then sends blocks of data to IP which adds its own headers and ships the packets over the network. All this prepending of the data with headers causes memory moves in both the sending and the receiving machines.Someone got the bright idea that if packets were long and they stuck the headers on the end (they became trailers), the receiving machine could pu t the packet on the beginning of a page boundary and if the trailer was OK merely delete it and transfer control of the page with no memory moves involved. The problem is that trailers were never standardized and most gateways don't know to look for the routing information at the end of the block. When trailers are used, the machine typically works fine on the local network (no gateways involved) and for short blocks through gateways (on which trailers aren't used).So TELNET and FTP's of very short files work just fine and FTP's of long files seem to hang. On BSD 4. 2 trailers are a boot option and one should make sure they are off when using the Internet. BSD 4. 3 negotiates trailers, so it uses them on its local net and doesn't use them when going across the network. 17 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet Retransmissions TCP fires off blocks to its partner at the far end of the connection. If it doesn't receive an acknowledgement in a re asonable amount of time it retransmits the blocks.The determination of what is reasonable is done by TCP's retransmission algorithm. There is no correct algorithm but some are better than others, where better is measured by the number of retransmissions done unnecessarily. BSD 4. 2 had a retransmission algorithm which retransmitted quickly and often. This is exactly what you would want if you had a bunch of machines on an ethernet (a low delay network of large bandwidth). If you have a network of relatively longer delay and scarce bandwidth (e. g. 56kb lines), it tends to retransmit too aggressively.Therefore, it makes the networks and gateways pass more traffic than is really necessary for a given conversation. Retransmission algorithms do adapt to the delay of the network -18after a few packets, but 4. 2's adapts slowly in delay situations. BSD 4. 3 does a lot better and tries to do the best for both worlds. It fires off a few retransmissions really quickly assuming it is on a low delay network, and then backs off very quickly. It also allows the delay to be about 4 minutes before it gives up and declares the connection broken. -19Appendix A References to Remedial Information 18Quaterman and Hoskins, â€Å"Notable Computer Networks†, Communications of the ACM, Vol 29, #10, pp. 932-971 (October, 1986). Tannenbaum, Andrew S. , Computer Networks, Prentice Hall, 1981. Hedrick, Chuck, Introduction to the Internet Protocols, Anonymous FTP from topaz. rutgers. edu, directory pub/tcp-ip-docs, file tcp-ip-intro. doc. -20Appendix B List of Major RFCs RFC-768 RFC-791 RFC-792 RFC-793 RFC-821 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) Internet Protocol (IP) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the InternetRFC-822 RFC-854 RFC-917 * RFC-919 * RFC-922 * Subnets RFC-940 * RFC-947 * RFC-950 * RFC-959 RFC-966 * Protocol RFC-988 * RFC-997 * RF C-1010 * RFC-1011 * Standard for the Format of ARPA Internet Text Messages Telnet Protocol Internet Subnets Broadcasting Internet Datagrams Broadcasting Internet Datagrams in the Presence of Toward an Internet Standard Scheme for Subnetting Multi-network Broadcasting within the Internet Internet Standard Subnetting Procedure File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Host Groups: A Multicast Extension to the Internet Host Extensions for IP Multicasting Internet Numbers Assigned Numbers Official ARPA-Internet Protocols 9 RFC's marked with the asterisk (*) are not included in the 1985 DDN Protocol Handbook. Note: This list is a portion of a list of RFC's by topic retrieved from the NIC under NETINFO:RFC-SETS. TXT (anonymous FTP of course). The following list is not necessary for connection to the Internet, but is useful in understanding the domain system, mail system, and gateways: RFC-882 RFC-883 RFC-973 RFC-974 RFC-1009 Domain Names – Concepts and Facilities Domain Names – Implement ation Domain System Changes andObservations Mail Routing and the Domain System Requirements for Internet Gateways -21Appendix C Contact Points for Network Information Network Information Center (NIC) DDN Network Information Center SRI International, Room EJ291 333 Ravenswood Avenue Menlo Park, CA 94025 (800) 235-3155 or (415) 859-3695 [email  protected] ARPA NSF Network Service Center (NNSC) NNSC BBN Laboratories Inc. 10 Moulton St. Cambridge, MA 02238 (617) 497-3400 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com The Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet[email  protected] NSF. NET -22Glossary core gateway The innermost gateways of the ARPAnet. These gateways have a total picture of the reachability to all networks known to the ARPAnet with EGP. They then redistribute reachability information to all those gateways speaking EGP. It is from them your EGP agent (there is one acting for you somewhere if you can reach the ARPAnet) finds out it can reach all the nets on the ARPAnet. Which is th en passed to you via Hello, gated, RIP†¦. ount to infinity The symptom of a routing problem where routing information is passed in a circular manner through multiple gateways. Each gateway increments the metric appropriately and passes it on. As the metric is passed around the loop, it increments to ever increasing values til it reaches the maximum for the routing protocol being used, which typically denotes a link outage. hold down When a router discovers a path in the network has gone down announcing that that path is down for a minimum amount of time (usually at least two minutes).This allows for the propagation of the routing information across the network and prevents the formation of routing loops. split horizon When a router (or group of routers working in consort) accept routing information from multiple external networks, but do not pass on information learned from one external network to any others. This is an attempt to prevent bogus routes to a network from being pr opagated because of gossip or counting to infinity. -23- 20 Get any book for free on: www. Abika. com

Binge Drinking Must be Stopped Essay

The article Binge Drinking Must be Stopped written by, Harvard University lecturer and principal investigator of the College Alcohol Study, Henry Wechsler is primarily a study about alcohol drinking in American colleges. Wechsler argues that drink bingeing is highly common in the colleges of America. He says that â€Å"binge drinking is a reality of college life in America and perhaps the central focus of fraternity-house life. † This is deemed to be true by Wechsler because of; (1) the administrator’s lack of knowledge about this issue of college alcohol bingeing, (2) the adaptation of colleges to the culture of college drinking, (3) the lack of continuity in the programs provided and (4) and implementations of policies imposed on colleges are not monitored effectively. Wechsler says that the culture of American colleges, while entangled with a reputation of widespread alcoholic drinking, does not alarm college administrators for they claim complete unawareness to the current situation of the alcohol issues within their students. Wechsler, being a prominent staff in the Harvard School of Public Health, reports that the department has exhausted its effort in getting feedback from the school administrators. However, he insinuates that there can be no reason to be completely blanked out in the issue of drinking situation. He supports this through various circumstances where people can easily witness the reality of college life and drink bingeing. One instance that Wechsler contributes where the scenario of heavy drinking in colleges can be observed is through the weeknight rounds of security vans monitoring places where they often get hold of worn out students from parties. Another, he says, is through the response of freshmen students on their knowledge of this alcohol bingeing college lifestyle despite of their just recent arrival to the university. Wechsler then argues that if security personnel and freshmen can easily become aware of this then there can be no reason for college administrators to be completely unwary of the situation. He adds that the problem is rooted from the grassroots themselves, who are the students, and the superior officers, who are the school administrators and the local officials. Just like any other person struggling with alcohol, Wechsler asserts that students should be reminded that excessive drinking is a problem and that although it is quite common in college, it can never mean that it is acceptable. School administrators, on the other hand, including college superiors and dorm supervisors should fulfill their responsibilities in watching the students over. Wechsler complains that school administrators are lenient in permitting their students in conducting activities which overtly promotes drink bingeing. Also, Wechsler advises that regulations on drinking should be heavily imposed and not neglected. He says that â€Å"it is easy to say there is no drinking allowed in a dormitory or a fraternity, but enforcement is necessary to put the policy into effect. † Wechsler then asserts that this not a new issue in America thus there is a great need for everyone to address it. â€Å"This is no longer a time merely to form a committee to study the situation,† he says. Now, Wechsler suggests that everyone participate in eradicating this issue within American colleges from the school administrators, the fraternity and sorority systems, the community officials, the parents of the students, and the students themselves.

Prehistoric civilization in the philippine

A powerful and highly civilised nation comes in contact with a barbaric and isolated people, who have nevertheless advanced many steps on the road of progress, it would naturally be thought that the superior and conquering race would endeavour to collect and place on record information concerning such people: their manners, customs, language, religion, and traditions. Unfortunately, in the case of the Spanish conquests of the sixteenth century, that nation appears never to have considered it a duty to hand down to posterity any detailed description of the singularly interesting races they had vanquished.As it was with the Guanches of the Canaries, the Aztecs of Mexico, and the Quichuas of Peru, so was it with the Chamorro of the Ladrones, and the Tagalo-Bisaya tribes of the Philippines. The same Vandal spirit that prompted the conquistadores to destroy the Maya and Aztec literature also moved them to demolish the written records of the Philippine natives, and but few attempts were ma de to preserve relics or information concerning them.The Spanish priests, as the lettered men of those times, were the persons we should look to for such a work, but in their religious ardour they thought only of the ubjugation and conversion of the natives, and so, with the sword in one hand, and crucifix in the other, they marched through that fair land, ignoring and destroying the evidences of a strange semi-civilisation which should have been to them a study of the deepest interest. Fortunately, however, there were a few in that period who were interested in such matters, and who wrote accounts of the state of culture of the islanders of that early date.Some of these MSS. have been preserved in the archives of Manila, and have lately attracted the attention of Spanish scholars. Such is the article from which the greater part of these notes are taken. In the volume for 1891 of the Revista Ibero-Americana, published at Madrid, there appeared a series of papers contributed by the B ishop of Oviedo, and entitled â€Å"La antigua civilizacion de las Islas Filipinas,† in which he gives a very interesting description of the natives and their mode of life.The source of this information is – 119 an old folio manuscript written on rice-paper in the year 1610 from data collected at the period of the Spanish conquest of the Philippines by Legaspi. It is extended to the ear 1606, and relates minutely the condition of the islanders prior to the arrival of the Spanish. The codex is divided into five books, and these again into 183 capitulos or chapters.The writer lived in the group for twenty-nine years in order to complete his work, which is authorised by authentic signatures of responsible persons. Extracts have also been made from Miguel de Lo-arca's account of the Philippines written in 1583, Dampier's voyage in the Pinckerton collection, and Antonio de Morga's â€Å"Sucesesos de las Islas Filipinas† The first historical existence of the Malay pro per is traced to Menangkabau in theArchipelago, and by their vigour, energy, and skill have made themselves masters of the original inhabitants. At an early period they probably received instruction from Hindoo immigrants in the arts of working metals, spinning, weaving, ;c. As to the whence of the various Malayan tribes of the Philippines, it is most probable that they originally reached the archipelago from Borneo, or the Malay Peninsula. From northern Borneo the Sulu islands form a series of stepping-stones across to Mindanao.As the Tagalo language is looked upon as one of the purest of Malay ialects, and contains the least number of Sanscrit words, it may be inferred from this that the race has occupied the islands from an early date. It is possible that the first settlers were carried thither by ocean currents, and that the Kuro Siwo, or Black Current, which sweeps up past Luzon is also responsible for the existence of the Kabaran (a Malay tribe) in Formosa.From ancient times b oats and men have drifted up from the Malay Islands to Japan, and W. E. Griffis, in his â€Å"Mikado's Empire,† states that Shikoku and Kiushiu were inhabited by a mixed race descended from people who had come from Malaysia and South-Eastern Asia. It is most probable that Micronesia was settled from the Philippine Group, which thus became the meeting ground of the northern migration of Polynesians from Samoa, and the Micronesians proper.The Spanish codex before mentioned states that the Tagalo-Bisaya tribes were thought to be derived from the coasts of Malabar and Malacca, and that, according to tradition, they arrived at the islands in small vessels called barangayan, under the direction of dato or maguinoo (chiefs or leaders), who retained their chieftainship after the landing as the basis of a social organisation of a tribal kind, nd that every barangay (district or tribal division) was composed of about fifty families.Nothing definite appears to have been obtained from th eir traditions as to the original habitat of the race, and this may be accounted for by the supposition that the migration occurred at a remote period, and that all knowledge of their former home was lost. When a migratory – 120 race takes possession of new regions it maintains little or no correspondence with those left behind; thus in time they forget their old habitations, and their geographical knowledge is reduced to obscure and fading traditions.On arriving at their new home the invaders must have ejected the indigenous Aieta from the low-lying country, and driven them back into the mountains. Juan de Salcedo, the Cortes of the Philippines, in his triumphal march round the island of Luzon, was unable to conquer many of the hill tribes, both Aieta and Tagalo, some of whom have remained independent until the present time. The Spanish Government forbade all intercourse with these mountaineers on pain of one hundred lashes and two years' imprisonment, and this edict had the effect of preserving the ruder, non- agricultural hill-races.This invading race of Malays was divided into many different tribes, the principal ones being the Tagalo of Luzon and the Bisaya of the southern isles. The Tagalo or Ta-Galoc were the most numerous, and were endowed with all the valour and politeness which can be expected in a semi-civilised people. The Pampango and but easily civilised. The Bisaya were also called Pintados or â€Å"painted ones,† by the Spanish, from their custom of tatooing the body. Within this community of tribes there are numerous differences of dialects and customs, clothing, character, and physical structure, which in many cases indicate obvious traces of foreign mixture.As a race, the Philippine natives of the Malayan tribes are of moderate stature, well- formed, and of a coppery-red colour, or, as De Morga quaintly describes them, â€Å"They were of the colour of boiled quinces, having a clever disposition for anything they undertook: sha rp, choleric, and resolute. † Both men and women were in the habit of anointing and perfuming their long black hair, which they wore gathered in a knot or roll on the back of the head. The women, who were of pleasing appearance, adorned their hair with Jewels, and also wore ear-pendants and finger-rings of gold.The men ad little or no beard, and both sexes were distinguished for their large, black eyes. The Zambales, or Beheaders, shaved the front part of the head, and wore on the skull a great lock of loose hair, which custom also obtained among the ancient Chamorro of the Ladrones. Most of the tribes filed their teeth, and stained them black with burnt cocoanut shell; while among the Bisaya the upper teeth were bored, and the perforations filled with gold, a singular custom observed by Marco Polo in China, and which was also practised in ancient Peru and Egypt.Many of the tribes are spoken of y the early Spanish navigators as being endowed with fair intellectual capacities, possessing great powers of imitation, sober, brave, and determined. The Tagalo character, according to some later writers, is difficult to define: the – 121 craniologist and physiognomist may often find themselves at fault. They are great children, their nature being a singular combination of vices and virtues.The costume of the men consisted of a short-sleeved cotton-tunic (chinina), usually black or blue, which came below the waist, a coloured cotton waistcloth, or kilt (bahaque), extending nearly to the knees, and over this a belt or sash of silk a andbreadth wide, and terminating in two gold tassels. On the right side hung a dagger (bararao) three palms long, and double-edged, the hilt formed of ivory or gold, and the sheath of buffalo-hide. They wore a turban (potong) on the head, and also leg-bands of black reeds or vines such  ¤s are seen among the Papuans of New Guinea.Chains, bracelets (calombiga), and armlets of gold, cornelian and agate were much worn, and he was reckoned a poor person who did not possess several gold chains. Hernando Requel, writing home to Spain, stated: â€Å"There is more gold in this island of Luzon than there is iron in Biscay. † The Tinguiane had a peculiar custom of wearing tightly-compressed bracelets, which stopped the growth of the forearm, and caused the hand to swell. Women wore the top's, a bordered and ornamented cloth wrapped round the body, which was confined by a belt, and descended to the ankles.The bust was covered with a wide- sleeved camisita, or frock (baro), to which was sometimes added a handkerchief. The women of Luzon were without head-dress, but made use of a parasol of palm-leaves (payong). Among the Bisaya the women wore a small cap or hood, and in the slaves. Both sexes wore the same dress among the Ilocanos, the chief article of attire eing a loose coat (cabaya) similar to those of the Chinese. The dress of the Chiefs' wives was more elegant than that of women of the common people (tim aguas). They wore white robes, and others of crimson silk, plain or interwoven with gold, and trimmed with fringes and trinkets.From their ears were suspended golden pendants of excellent workmanship, and on their fingers and ankles were massive gold rings set with precious stones. The timaguas and slaves went barefooted, but the upper class wore shoes, the women being daintily shod with velvet shoes embroidered with gold. Both men and women were very cleanly and elegant in their persons and dress, and of a goodly mien and grace; they took great pains with their hair, rejoicing in its blackness, washing it with the boiled bark of a tree called gogo, and anointing it with musk oil and other perfumes. They bathed daily, and looked upon it as a remedy for almost every complaint. On the birth of a child the mother repaired to the nearest stream, and bathed herself and the little one, after which she returned to her ordinary occupation. Women were well treated among these people, and had for heir employment domestic work, needlework†in which they – 122 excelled†the spinning and weaving of silk and cotton into various fabrics, and also the preparation of the hemp, palm, and anana fibres.The Philippine natives, with the exception of some of the hill tribes, were diligent agriculturalists, this being their chief occupation. In some mountainous regions they adopted a system of terrace cultivation similar to that of China, Peru, and Northern Mexico in bygone times, and which may also be seen in Java. They cultivated rice, sweet potatoes, bananas, cocoanuts, sugar-cane, palms, various vegetable roots and ibrous plants. They hunted the buffalo, deer, and wild boar. The flesh of the buffalo, or karabao, was preserved for future use by being cut into slices and dried in the sun, when it was called tapa.Rice was prepared by being boiled, then pounded in a wooden mortar and pressed into cakes, thus forming the bread of the country. They made palm wine (alac or mosto) from the sap of various species of palms. Food was stored in raised houses similar to the pataka of the Maori. The first fruits of the harvest were devoted to the deified spirits of ancestors, called anito. l The Bisaya, hen planting rice, had the singular custom of offering a portion of the seed at each corner of the field as a sacrifice.The ordinary dainty among the islanders was the buyo or betel quid, consisting of a leaf of betel pepper (tambul or Siri) smeared over with burnt lime and wrapped round a piece of areca nut (bonga). â€Å"The Filipinos,† says the old Spanish padre, â€Å"lived in houses (bahei) built of bamboo, cane, and palm leaves, and raised upon foundation-piles about six feet from the ground. † These dwellings were supplied with cane screens in the place of divisions and doors. The elevated floor, where they ate and slept, was also made of split cane, and the whole structure was secured by reeds and cords for want of nails.They ascende d to these houses by a portable ladder, which was removed when the inmates went out, a sign that no person might approach the dwelling, which was otherwise unsecured. The house was surrounded by a gallery or verandah (batalan), earthenware, and copper vessels for various purposes. They had, moreover, in their houses some low tables and chairs, also boxes called tampipi, which served for the purpose of keeping wearing apparel and Jewels. Their bedding consisted usually of mats manufactured from various fibres. The houses of the chiefs were much larger and better constructed than those of the timaguas.Many of their villages were built on the banks of rivers and the shores of lakes and harbours, so that they were surrounded by water, in the manner of the seaside dwellings of New Guinea and the Gulf of Maracaibo. Among the Tinguiane tree houses were made use of. In these they slept at night, in order to avoid being surprised by enemies, and – 123 defended themselves by hurling do wn stones upon the attacking party, exactly in the ame manner as the natives of New Britain do to this day. The external commerce of the Tagalo tribes was principally with China, of which nation there were vessels in Manila on the arrival of the Spanish.They are also said to have had intercourse with Japan, Borneo, and Siam. They had no coined money, but to facilitate trade they utilised gold as a medium of exchange in the form of dust and ingots, which were valued by weight. Magellan speaks of their system of weights and measures. These people were skilful shipwrights and navigators. The Bisaya were in the habit of making piratical forays among the isles. Their vessels were of arious kinds, some being propelled by oars or paddles, and others were provided with masts and sails.Canoes were made of large trees, and were often fitted with keels and decks, while larger vessels, called virey and barangayan were constructed of planks fastened with wooden bolts. The rowers, with busey (pad dles) or oars (gayong), timed their work to the voices of others, who sung words appropriate to the occasion, and by which the rowers understood whether to hasten or retard their work. Above the rowers was a platform (bailio) on which the fighting men stood without embarrassing the rowers, and above this again was the carang or awning. They sometimes used outriggers (balancoire) on both sides of the vessel.The lapi and tapaque were vessels of the largest kind, some carrying as many as two hundred and fifty men. The barangan, a type of vessel used from the earliest times, was singularly like those of the ancients described by Homer. Society among the Tagalo-Bisaya tribes was divided into three classes, the chiefs and nobles, the common people (timagua), and the slaves. The principal of every social group†styled maguinoo among the Tagalo, bagani by the Manobo, and dat02 by the Bisaya†was the only political, military, and Judicial authority.These chieftainships were heredit ary, and the same respect was shown to the women as to the men of the ruling families. Their power over the people was despotic, they imposed a tribute upon the harvests, and could at any time reduce a subject to slavery, or dispose of his property and children. The slaves were divided into two classes: the sanguihuileres, who were in entire servitude, as also were their children†lived and served in the houses of their masters; while the namamahayes lived in houses of their own, and only worked as slaves on special occasions, such as at harvesting and housebuilding.Among this latter class there obtained a peculiar half-bond system, and their having an only son, that child would be half free and half enslaved†that is, he would work one month for his owner and the next for himself. If they had more than one child, the first-born would – 124 follow the condition of the father, the second that of the mother, and so on. If there were uneven numbers, the last born was h alf free and half bond. Slaves were bought, sold, and exchanged like ordinary merchandise. In their social manners these people were very courteous, more especially the Luzon tribes.They never poke to a superior without removing the turban. They then knelt upon one knee, raised their hands to their cheeks, and awaited authority to speak. The hongi, or nose-pressing salutation of the Polynesians, was an ancient custom in the Philippine Group, and on the island of Timor. It also obtained among the Chamorr03 of the Ladrones, who termed it tshomiko. The Philippine natives addressed all superiors in the third person, and added to every sentence the word po, equivalent to senor.They were given to addresses replete with compliments, and were fond of the music of the cud, a guitar with two strings of copper wire. In regard to Judicial matters, all complaints were brought before the dato of the barangay (district) for examination. Though they had no written laws, they had established rules a nd customs by which all disputes were settled, and the chiefs recovered their fees by seizing the property not only of the vanquished party, but also of his witnesses.Trial by ordeal was common, the usual mode being that of plunging the arm into a vessel of boiling water and taking out a stone from the bottom; or a lighted torch was placed in the hands of the accused, and if the flame flickered towards him he was pronounced uilty. Theft was sometimes punished by death, in which case the condemned was executed by the thrust of a lance. In some cases the thief was punished by being reduced to slavery. Loans with excessive interest were ordinary, the debtor and his children often becoming enslaved to the lender. Verbal insults were punished with great severity.It was also regarded as a great insult to step over a sleeping person, and they even objected to wakening one asleep4. This seems to refer to the widespread belief of the soul leaving a sleeping body. Their worse curse was, †Å"May thou die sleeping. The male children underwent a species of circumcision at an early age, which was but preparatory to further rites. Their oaths of fidelity, in conventions of peace and friendship, were ratified by the ceremony of blood- brotherhood, in which a vein of the arm being opened, the flowing blood was drunk by the other party.Among these people was sometimes seen that singular mania for imitation called by the Javanese sakit latar, on the Amoor olon, in Siberia imuira, and in the Philippines malimali. This peculiar malady, presumably the result of a deranged nervous system, manifests itself as far as I can gather, in the following anner, the afflicted person is seized with a desire to- 125 copy or imitate the actions and movements of others, and will do the most extraordinary and ridiculous things to attain his object.The despair induced by this strange mania and its consequent ridicule, urges the unfortunate to end his life in the dreaded Amok. These unfortunates were sometimes attacked by the amok frenzy. Is is certain that gold and copper mines have been worked in the islands from early implements, and the gold was formed into ornaments, or used as a medium of exchange. The ruder mountain tribes brought much gold from the interior, and raded it to the lowland people in exchange for various coveted articles.Several of the tribes were in the habit of tatooing the body, the Bisaya being the most noted for the practice. The Catalangan Iraya used for tatoo patterns, and as decorations for sacred places certain marks and characters which appeared to be of Chinese or Japanese origin. The Iraya proper used only straight and simple curved lines like those of the Aieta. The Ysarog (Issar ¶), a primitive race of mountaineers who have been isolated for centuries, are said by later writers to resemble the Dyaks of Borneo.Time was reckoned in former days by suns and moons, and feasts were held on the occurrence of certain astronomical phenomena. Brass gongs were much used at these feasts, and also on war expeditions. Such are some of the notes collected in reference to this interesting race. These Tagalo, these Bisaya, these Pampango, and Cagayane were despised by their Iberian conquerors as being ignorant savages; but, as the good old padre says in his MS. , they were worthy of being placed on a superior level to certain ancient people who possess a more illustrious fame. And who shall say it was not so ?

International Human Resource Management in context Essay

International Human Resource Management in context - Essay Example It will consider examples of various MNCs operating in different countries and will conclude with the outcome of the essay. Human Resource Management is a broad term for personnel policies, recruitment and staffing, training and development, redundancy and other broad issues involving the workforce of an organization. Human Resource Policies are influenced by internal and external policies of an organization. Internal policies include management style and degree of centralization. The culture of host and home countries comes in the external factors of the organization. Together with government policies, culture makes the most important factor influencing the human resource management policies of multinational organizations. The problem arises when a company operates in two countries one of which is developed and other is a developing organization. A company may have very strict recruitment and staffing policies of an organization. However, it may not be able to follow such stringent policies when operating in a developing country. Similarly, the Multinational Corporations may also not have luxury of having a high-level staff in the organization given that the culture of a developing country may not put too much focus on high level of education. This may lead the MNC to hire people that do not meet their criteria of recruitment and selection. This is one way the culture of a developing country may affect the MNC organization’s HRM policies (Amba-Rao, 1994). Apart from cultural difference, the legal environment of business dawns an important influence on the HRM practices. The studies done in the field state those legal requirements are the driving force of all managerial practices including Human Resource Policies in different parts of the world. Similarly, the culture, proficiency in foreign language, ability to follow foreign policies and having different objective from a job are all important factors that

Car Buying Assignment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Car Buying Assignment - Research Paper Example Present Value Annuity of 5% for 10 years =12.578(use a financial table for PVA, Tapiero, 2010) = ($180 12.578 (PVA 5%, 10 years) = $2,264.04 SOLUTION 4 Amount saved=$ 3,800 Time =5 years Rate=7% Present value annuity of 7% for 5 years=2.624(use a financial table for PVA, Tapiero, 2010) = ($3800 x 2.624(PVA 7%, 5yrs) =$9,971.2 SOLUTION 5 Cash cost=$60 Credit cost = ($60+ ($34for 24) =$876-$695= $181 Home Buying Assignment Grading Rubric Table Comparing Data for the Two Homes Particulars For each home in terms of: 1942 San Ysidro Drive Beverly hills’, CA 18737 Gledhill Street Northridge, CA Price $1,195,000 $579,000 Age 57 years 59 years No. of bedrooms 3 3 No. of bathrooms 2 2 Square footage 2310 1670 Lot size 0.29 0.21 Price per square foot $517 $347 Comparison of the Particulars of the Two Homes The essence of using the two zip codes is to try and locate the appropriate region for buying a particular home so that it can be convenient in terms of reaching to your work station (Lucier, 2005). This can also determine the accessibility of resources and services conveniently for places such as schools, hospitals, church. Therefore, the two zip codes are logically used so as to enable the person interested in buying a home be able to determine the right location of the home with regards to accessibility of various services. In addition, an individual should also consider the shipping factor especially if most times they will be receiving goods through shipment, then a convenient and a strategic location would be a better choice. Considering the total prices for the two homes it is realized that the Beverley hills home is more expensive as compared to that in Northridge both in California. The above table shows that the home in 1942 San Ysidro Drive Street in Beverly is costs $1,195,000 while that along 18737 Gledhill Street costs $579,000. This also proves that those who stay in this area are financially capable (Lucier, 2005). This information would enable t he home buyer to know how to prepare and plan within the limits of his or her budget. After receiving prior information the buyer will plan and ensure that his objectives are precisely met. An individual can therefore make a good decision by comparing the prices of the two homes and knowing which among the two will be within his financial ability before any transactions are made. The price per square foot for the first home in Beverly is about 517 dollars while that along the Gledhill Street in Northridge is about 347 dollars. This comparison illustrates that land as a property is highly valued in Beverly than in Northridge especially for constructed buildings. In this, the price per square foot shows the value of the house especially by using a square foot that is equated to a given price which helps in determining how much money can be paid, alternatively, if an individual wishes to buy the whole home (Lucier, 2005). T

Cases in international marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Cases in international marketing - Essay Example The Multinationals have gained a huge market and a large number of new consumers, but have not been able to realize the full potential of their investments in China. They have benefited from cheap imports but have not been able to sell their own products for equal value or quantity and have ended in a trade deficit with their Chinese counterparts. However the Chinese too need the world markets as much as the world needs them and in this quid-pro-quo there is still a silver lining and by understanding and segmenting the market properly, lost ground can be recovered. Ever since the Chinese came out of their Walled existence and opened themselves to the International communities, they have become the focus of the whole world. Having the largest population on Earth opened up a marketing opportunity that was beyond comprehension to most conglomerates. Added to that the purchasing power dazzled one and all and Multinationals of all hues went headlong to get a piece of the action. Liberalization of the economy and a bent towards industrialization in a hurry offered huge opportunities for expansion. As of now as many as 320,000 foreign ventures have come up on mainland China, and they are growing by the day. China is the second largest recipient of Foreign Direct Investments that have crossed 400 billion dollars. Investments have come in from all quarters of the world, mainly from the USA. China does offer great marketing opportunities due to its huge population and capabilities. It has abundant cheap labour, a good infrastructure and liberal open market policies that are loved by the Multinationals. There are huge opportunities in manufacturing. Labour intensive industries thrive well due to very high productivity level of the workers and vigilant government machinery that still keeps them in line with their firm labour laws. Liberalization has created more job opportunities and the growing population is easily absorbed in industrial activities. To promote these

Risk Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Risk Management - Essay Example The conclusion part considers some individual views regarding risk management. Easy Jet is one of the leading budget airlines in Europe. Its operation is spread around 30 countries and serves its customers in more than 100 countries. Various business and popular vacation spots are included among these destination hubs. The organisation is mostly operated in the different destination hubs of Europe. Apart from this the organisation also has its operations in the North America and Middle East regions. Easy Jet offers almost all its tickets through the online booking facilities. No complimentary meal is offered on board. This has helped the organisation to make their costs as low as possible. Easy Jet has a dynamic fleet of 175 Boeing Jets and Airbuses (Hoovers, 2010). Starting in the 1995, the organisation has been able to mark its presence in the aviation industry. Risks are inherent to a business activity. However, the organisation needs to take steps to mitigate the risks. There can be various kinds of risks including strategic, operational, financial and hazard risks. Apart from these there can be certain other classifications of the inherent risks to a business, however those can broadly classified into the previously mentioned four categories. The risks, which the organisation is exposed to, can emerge from a number of factors which can either be external or internal to the organisation. The figure overleaf illustrates the key risks, influenced by the external and internal factors. Almost all of the financial risks including interest risks, foreign exchange and credit risks are externally market driven. However financial risk like liquidity and cash flow risk is both driven by external and internal factors. Strategic risks as changes in intensity of the competition, customer base and external industry environment are externally driven. Risks arising out of the mergers and

Childhood Obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Childhood Obesity - Essay Example There others that should be seen soon from the IOM and the National Assembly on School Based Heath Care. These two are expected to come out with policy that will reinstate the physical education program which was mandatory by the government for kindergarten through 12th grade.   Most public health policy is beginning to be seen through initiations from the states at this time. Some organizations that are working very hard on the issue now are the National Governors Association, the National Conference of State Legislatures, and the National Academy for State Health Policy(Katz, O'Connell, Yeh et.al., 2009).  There are also policies that have been in place that now are being scrutinized due to the belief by public health that these policies may be causing an increase in childhood obesity. One of those policies is the decades old "cheap food" policy which was instituted to provide cheap food for those that are low incomes. However, this US Agriculture policy promotes the overproduc tion of farm commodities like corn and soybeans. These "cheap commodities have been converted into calorie-rich but nutrient poor snacks, sweets and sweetened beverages that have lead to an excess of daily calories for Americans, children and adults". (Lilliston, 2010). One of the things that is of note here is to remember that farm policy is also public health policy. These are the beginnings of the relief needed toward good public health policy related to nutrition and excercise as well as childbood obesity.

Approaches to the Management of Diversity Research Paper - 1

Approaches to the Management of Diversity - Research Paper Example Many authors agree with this definition saying that diversity should be seen to apply to everyone in the organization in order to produce its intended effect. As long as there are distinctions within a group, diversity will always exist (Li, Cho and Curry 17). Another definition considered inclusive and constitutive defines diversity as â€Å"the collective amount of differences among members of a social unit.† (Harrison and sin 196) From all these definitions it is evident that diversity goes beyond the issues of race and gender to address other issues such as differences in talents and abilities, age, social status, economic status etc. of people at the workplace or in any functional group (Harrison and sin 196). There are four dimensions to understanding diversity. Some researchers from the CAN Corporation studied the impact of diversity on Air Force mission performance. they looked at four dimensions to diversity: (1) Demographic diversity: these include personal characteristics such as age, race/ethnicity, religion, and gender; (2) Cognitive diversity: these will include personality types, such as extrovert/introvert and Type A/Type B, thinking styles, such as quick, decisive thinking versus slow, methodical thinking etc.; (3) structural diversity: organizational background characteristics including service, work function and component; and (4) Global diversity: and this include national affiliations (Riche and Amanda Kraus 5-10). Diversity management has been defined as â€Å"the as the craft or process of making quality decisions in the midst of differences, similarities, tensions, complexities, etc. the distinction between diversity and diversity management is important. If you do not properly manage diversity, you can lose representation.† (Lim, Cho and Curry 20) Another author considers diversity as a â€Å"liability† until and unless processes are put in place to manage the negative dynamic and to release diversities

Social networks weave uneasy web for workers Essay

Social networks weave uneasy web for workers - Essay Example ional secrets that are vital for the company’s success and for this reason the HRM feels that there should be ethics of using social networking websites. As well as employers think that use of social networking websites will turn their workers unproductive and less interested in the work. Moreover employers also have the fear of losing organization’s reputation when employees make unsuitable comments about their companies or employers. Despite of the valid reasons employers cannot stop the workers to quit using social networking websites during working hours; it’s a habit which is getting stronger day by day. Although, HRM can find out ways to make valuable use of social networking, which could be beneficial to their organizations rather than prohibiting the use of social webs (Holland 2011). This paper will suggest the ways how HRM can control the use of social networking websites of their workers, what policies should be created for use of such sites and how to make the beneficial use of social networking because on the other hand, it is an efficient source of spreading the business. Social networking is a useful tool, which can be used by companies as a way of communication between supervisors and subordinates. Moreover, social networking can form alliances and workers can help each other in their work by sharing information among them. Due to traditional hierarchy, flow of information among different departments and level of managements were difficult and time consuming and resulted to be the cause of delayed work and decisions. Social networking websites proved to be proficient in this regard as it quickly delivers the message between managers and the employees and the managers can make decisions instantly, without wastage of time. According to Swartz, a corporate social network make the duration of time shorter because these social webs convey the message in minimum time possible. Social networking indirectly decreases the completion time of work

Collaborating to Expand the Pipeline Essay Example for Free

Collaborating to Expand the Pipeline Essay Affirmative action is a policy that is aimed at providing positive measures to remedy effects of past discrimination against members of certain groups (Clayton Crosby 1992, p.2). One of the areas that suffer underrepresentation of the diverse, underrepresented individuals and minority group in colleges is the laws schools and subsequently in the legal profession. The questioned posed is â€Å"Is affirmative action the best solution to alleviating this crisis or is it the major cause together with other practices that have contributed to these underrepresentation?                     First of all is the admission procedure. Admission selection considers those with a bachelor’s degree for an accredited university or college. Few underrepresented minority students are able to attend college and obtain the relevant qualifications. Moreover, there are disparities in number of applicants and the number who get enrolled. For example in 2000, 74500 individuals submitted their application to ABA- approved school and an estimate of 67% of the total were admitted (ABA/ LSAC Pre-Conference Report, 2005, p, 4). This illustrates a flaw in the acceptance procedure that focus on higher merit in which its well document trend that underrepresented minorities score less on the Law Schools Admission Test (LSAT).                   Secondly the individual state bar exams are a severe impediment. â€Å"While the LSAT remains a reliable predictor of success in law school and the Law School Admission Council (makers of the LSAT), warn against over-reliance on numerical qualifiers alone† (ABA/ LSAC Pre-Conference Report, 2005, p, 5). Raised cut off points detriment the minorities who are disproportionately at the bottom in addition the bars are also misapplied. The percentage of residents in a state should have a proportionate percentage at the law school. The lack of a national bar does also contribute to this issue.                      The above two examples illustrate why affirmative action is needed in leveling admissions. Higher merit and higher cut off points are serving to lock out minority groups from accessing law education. In coming up with a criteria for selection, the selection board should put into consideration performance of minority groups which is at the lower end of the spectrum.                   Terry Eastland suggests that affirmative action promotes discrimination. He argues that there is nothing like positive or negative discrimination. In Higher education for example, when the institution sets a lower grade for color students, the act in itself creates discrimination. These groups of students who will be enrolled under affirmative action are well aware that they are in that position due to their race. It is a negative experience that is not easy to erase. Sometimes attitudes from the majority students will affect the students from the minority. The majority students may not look at the minority as equals.                   Affirmative action leads to stigma. Eastland says that very few people are aware of the abilities and potential of the marginalized groups. In this case they are likely to be less respected and less valued. This can end up psychologically affecting these groups and it can be worsened if they fail to perform. Terry end believes that an environment should an equal working basis. If students have to be enrolled for higher education, it should be based on merit and not race. This will create an equal working environment of mutual relationship.                  Furthermore, Eastland equates ‘Affirmative action’ to ‘lower standards’. The rationale of having a policy that sets asides positions after a normal criterion creates a barrier between quality and less quality. By having this policy, institutions are accepting that results posted from minority groups are of lesser quality and lesser magnitude to that from the majority. Policy makers argue that the minority are affected by certain factors that make them not to equal results of the majority. It then beats logic that it would be easier resolving factors that make minority perform lesser than providing a criterion that guarantee certain results.                  Terry Eastland comments and views in regard to affirmative action tend to disapprove use of affirmative action against underrepresentation based on color. His views do not factor underrepresentation due to gender. However the logic behind his reasons and those of other scholars can equally be equated to affirmative action on gender and sex segregation                  Gender affirmative actions have shown to improve the status of women in the society. In fact advocates for gender affirmative actions have sprung from various women activists and organizations. Women have gained access to representations in legislative organs, various courses in colleges that stereotypically were set for men. However it is urged that continuous paying attention to a group of people will result in then differences becoming more salient than the commonalities among people (Clayton Crosby 1992, p.11). This statement thus emphasizes Terry Eastland’s arguments against affirmative action.                To conclude, the benefits of affirmative action are actually visible. Moving forward however, the fundamental principles of affirmative action seem to have been overtaken with time. Putting into consideration Terry Eastland arguments in regard to affirmative action, the negatives of affirmative action outweigh the positives. Affirmative action has led to lower productivity, increased segregation and stigmatization. The call to end affirmative actions thus is justified. References Clayton, Susan D, and Faye J. Crosby. Justice, Gender, and Affirmative Action. Ann Arbor, Mich: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1992. Print. Law Schools Admission Council. Pre Conference Report (2005) Collaborating to Expand the Pipeline. Retrieved from http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/op/pipelineconf/PipelinePostReport.authcheckdam.pdf Source document

The USAs economic recovery Essay Example for Free

The USAs economic recovery Essay The achievement of the new deal is a myth. The USAs economic recovery came with the outbreak of the Second World War. How far do these sources support this view? It is arguable how far the sources help to answer the question as some answer some parts and other sources answer other parts. The New Deal could be called a myth as far as helping the economic recovery is concerned. Evidence of this is given in source I as the information shows that the economy recovers the most when the USA enters the war the economy goes back, near enough, to what it was before the war and one year into the war the economy is actually better than it was before the crash and depression! The New deal also never helped to solve the underlying American economic problems. Sources A, C, G, are the ones which mostly oppose the New Deal. Confidence remained low through the 1930s when the New Deal was in operation; Americans spent and invested about 75 per-cent of what they had done before 1929. Unemployment was still at a high even after the Second New Deal It wasnt until Roosevelt cut the New Deal Budget in 1937 that the country went back into recession. The New Deals achievements are evident in sources D, E and F as these sources give evidence that America had been improving since the New Deal was created, and that the public were mostly happy that the New Deal had achieved what its main goals were. When USA entered the Second World War, the New Deal carried on improving Americas economy. Analysing the data in source I, closely evidence can also be found that the New Deal did help America overall. The New Deal helped to get production lines back on track, and the statistics also improved between 1935 and 1938 slightly. The fact that the economy did recover and improved shows that the statement is true to some extent. When Roosevelt cut the budget in 1937, it proved that the country may have been relying to much on the New Deal. This leads me to a theory that the country perhaps became slightly too dependent on the New Deal and in fact that the New Deal was not a myth at all in the long run. The war may not have helped as much as the general public and American figureheads made out. Economy had started improving before the world war anyway, at a steady rate. This therefore means that it wasnt purely because of the world war that the economy recovered, as it was already showing signs of improvement before America entered the war. Unemployment was falling greatly until Roosevelt cut the budget on the New Deal, after which it started to rise again slightly. Therefore, this does give proof that the New Deal did help the economy recover again because a year after the budget was cut, unemployment figures went up again. The war did help a great deal on improving the economy a great deal and this is shown mostly in source I as when America enters the war the unemployment decreased a lot, this is probably because of all the job openings in the army due to lack of soldiers and the fact that they had to supply armaments and food supplies to the rest of Europe and themselves as well. Looking at the sources that are generally against the New Deal and Roosevelt they are not very reliable, and are potentially very biased. This is because the sources are no more than propaganda sources, and only portray what the Republicans want the public people to believe. This is because the Republicans were mostly old fashioned and believed in the old fashioned ways. From analysing the sources closely and looking at the statistics given in the sources from World War Two and the New Deal it is possible to see that they show overall that both helped the recovery of the USA very much. The New Deal cut unemployment drastically, and unemployment was still going down before the war even started. When America entered the world war, it cut unemployment from 19 per-cent to 4.7per-cent. This almost wiped out unemployment completely, and created thousands of jobs. I conclude that it is for the above reasons that I believe that the statement, The achievement of the new deal is a myth. The USAs economic recovery came with the outbreak of the Second World War, is not very true and is bias. The sources are useful in helping interpret this, especially source I although some sources are not as helpful as others. If I had to place their support on the view in a scale of one to ten I would place it around 4 because they do not actually support the view in general, although they do help to put forward the opposite argument. The figures and data given before the America entered war give evidence which proves that the New Deal did reduce the unemployment rate, and entering the war just sped up the process and created many more jobs therefore chopping unemployment. Although the war may have helped to speed up the economic recovery, it is unfair to state that the New Deal was entirely a myth as it clearly did help America and the unemployment problems created within the country as a whole.

Existing Safety Measures At Construction Sites Construction Essay

Existing Safety Measures At Construction Sites Construction Essay In simple terms, health and safety is about identifying risks and eliminating or controlling them to stop accidents and occupational ill-health. Today there is a high focus on safety in the industry. Many companies have documented that the safety and well being of their workers and fellow human beings deserve the highest priority. In history, this is a major leap. If one looks at the approach and many deaths during projects such as the great Chinese wall, which is still measured to be the largest construction project to date, the dive is visible. One ancient Chinese myth states that each stone in the great Chinese wall stands for a life gone during the walls construction. Although no files are obtainable this myth may be nearer to fact than we would like to think. Archaeologists have revealed thousands of bodies covert in the foundation of the wall. Bodies were also used to make up the walls thickness. It has been estimated that millions of workers lost their lives due to accidents, strong physical labour, hunger, and disease. This is in the order of size of a life per metre of wall length! Statistics from the UK Health and Safety Executive show that normally one or two people are killed every week as a effect of construction work. Occupational ill-health, which can build up over time, accounts for further loss of life. This fact sheet provides an foreword to health and safety best practice for construction companies and construction industry professionals, clients and their advisors. 2.2 million people work in Britains construction industry, making it the countrys biggest industry. It is also one of the most risky. In the last 25 years, over 2,800 people have died from injuries they received as a result of construction work. Many more have been injured or made ill. One in five construction sites failed health and safety checks during the latest national inspection proposal carried out by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE), Inspectors from Britains workplace regulator visited 1759 refurbishment sites during March and checked on how 2145 contractors were complying with health and safety regulations.  On 348 sites sufficiently grave risks were discovered to warrant enforcement action being taken either stopping work straight away or ordering improvements to be made (Phil Hughes, 2005).   PROVISIONAL TITLE HOW CAN WE IMPROVE THE SAFETY  PERFORMANCES AT CONSTRUCTION SITES. STUDY THE  DIFFERENT SAFETY  MEASURES FOLLOWED IN GREAT BRITAIN.  Ã‚  Ã‚   This paper investigates the existing safety measures at construction sites   in Britain. The review of literature touches on the importance of safety in the construction industry, the types of construction hazards, British Labour Law on the protection against occupational risks and industrial accidents, construction site security, etc. The background of Britain is described; a study of safety levels at construction sites is conducted through questionnaires. Conclusions are made about the legal approaches to the regulation of occupational safety and health. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Aim: To investigates the existing safety measures at construction sites. Study the importance of safety in the construction industry, the types of construction hazards, industrial accidents, construction site security, etc. Analysis the health and safety in British constructions. Objectives or Purpose of the study: To achieve the goal of this study, it is needed to: 1. Make a brief overview of all health and safety in the present construction industries. 2. Analyse the ways in which these safety measures are using in various construction industries. 3. Study on British construction industries and their way of using safety measures. 4. Identify recent accidents occur at construction industries in Britain. 5. Attempt a brief comparison between the difference in safety measures using in Britain and other developing countries. 6. Suggest various ways to reduce accidents at construction sites by using safety measures effectively. LITERATURE REVIEW Due to the current condition of the U.S. economy, the construction industry is throbbing. The amount of financial support from both government and independent contracts has been adequately decreased; contractors are going to have a hard time funding and implementing their projects. Construction deals are being broken down and shut down due to a lack of capital while others are rolling without the correct needs, safety standards, and training programs. When the latter occurs there is a far greater risk for a construction accident to happen. Structures used to facilitate construction, such as framework and scaffolding, are often not given the importance they deserve, because of their momentary nature and because their cost is not recoverable from a single construction as a line item. Consequently, in many countries, the accident and failure rate for temporary structures are higher than those in eternal structures. Every industrial accident leads to tragedies such as injury or death to persons, and damage to property and the environment, with all the linked direct and indirect costs and effort. Economically and professionally more important is the fact that accidents also lead to delays in the construction process. All these add up to unwanted repercussions, not only on the workers and the organizations concerned, but also on the entire construction industry, the community, and, if the accidents and failures are sufficiently great or frequent, on the government itself. Most of the accidents and failures in momentary structures may be traced mainly to minor mistakes in fabrication, to moderately inexpensive items of materials or equipment, and to oversight or negligence in the functioning of applicable codes and regulations (Alan Griffith, 2001). Statistic has shown that the number of casualty and permanent disablement cases due to accident at the Malaysia construction sites is one of the uppermost as compared to the other sector. Even though the number of engineering accidents decreasing but the benefits paid to the accidents victims are ever increasing. Hence, there is an burning need to mitigate this problem. There are three basic steps that should be taken namely identifying the hazard, assessing the risk and domineering the risk to ensure a safe and conducive working condition. Implementation of effective hazards control methods may require different approaches due to changing of working environment at the construction sites. Latest technology employed at site had wiped out traditional method of construction and consequently bring in new types of hazard to the industry. There is an state compulsion for workers to ensure their own safety and health and, in agreement with specific instructions and the preparation they have received, to make correct use of safety devices and observe all safety rules, both collective and individual, and any other means of protection, warning or control. This obligation also extends to the use of machinery, equipment, tools, substances and risky products to ensure that inappropriate use does not jeopardise the health and safety of other employees and persons who may be there in the place of work. The basis of British health and safety law is the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974.The Act sets out the general duties which employers have towards employees and members of the public, and employees have to themselves and to each other. These duties are capable in the Act by the code of so far as is reasonably practicable. In other words, an employer does not have to take method to avoid or reduce the risk if they are technically impossible or if the time, trouble or cost of the measures would be grossly disproportionate to the risk. What the law requires here is what superior management and general sense would lead employers to do anyway: that is, to look at what the risks are and take reasonable measures to tackle them. The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 (the Management Regulations) generally make more clear what employers are required to do to manage health and safety under the Health and Safety at Work Act. Like the Act, they apply to every work ac tivity (Vivian Ramsey, 2007). The injure and death rate on buildings sites in London makes construction work the most risky job in the capital. People are injured every day and on average someone dies every month. What makes this even more appalling is that these are the least accident rates yet recorded. Our report is concerned with improving the health and well-being of Londons construction workers at a time when construction work is booming. Nearly  £5 billion is being spent each year, just on new building projects. It is clear that we are not yet doing all we can to stop accidents. The industry has set itself targets to reduce accidents, but is not yet on track to reduce these targets. Everyone involved in commissioning, delivering and working in construction still must do more to make this industry as safe as any other. We should not accept as a fact of life that construction work is dangerous and nothing can be done. The 2012 Olympics is the perfect cabinet for how construction projects can be Commissione d and delivered to the highest standard. We do not want a repeat of the Situation in Athens where 14 workers died on the projects unswervingly associated with the Olympics and as many as 26 in the building of following transport infrastructure (Richard Fellows, 2001). Complete safety does not exist. Safety is often defined as taking acceptable risks. This recognises that in fact every activity, whether it is driving a car, cooking in the kitchen or working on a drilling rig has linked risks. By accepting that there will always be a certain risk concerned it is possible to reduce risks, by dropping the chance of an unsafe event and mitigating its result. Lack of training has been recognized as one of the major contributory factors in accidents and ill health in construction. Many activities are made safe simply by ensuring that those doing the work have knowledge of and understand the importance of safe practices. The incidence of inspections depends on the nature and place of work. For example, following the first inspection, work at places over two metres in height require weekly inspections. In contrast, for work in excavations (including shafts and tunnels), inspections are necessary at the start of every shift. Inspections help to ensure that safety is monitored during changing site circumstances. Reports detailing inspections are generally required every time an inspection is carried out, but there are exceptions.   Executive Research Methodology In order to understand the various health and safety measures in the present construction industries in Britain different methodologies have to be adopted. Primary Sources Interview Direct Interview is one of the main sources of primary data today. This method would be used for the internal research. The internal research will focus on a few semi-structured interviews with a few senior and top managers. The intention is to formulate a true picture of the health and safety measures used in Great Britain These interviews will help to find out the reasons for the accidents occurring in construction industries. Questionnaires Another methodology that I hope to adopt for my research is the questionnaires. Questionnaires are more economical, and easier to arrange; the answers too will be in a standardized format. In situations of difficulty to get appointments with the top-level managers this method would be used. Postal questionnaires will be sent to top managers of the Companies and the responses can be analyzed. Secondary Sources Book Reviews The external research will be carried out through the reading and understanding of published material. This includes books and articles written on the importance of safety in the construction industry, the types of construction hazards, British Labour Law on the protection against occupational risks and industrial accidents, construction site security. Etc. Internet Research Internet research is another source of secondary data. This will be used to gather historical and current information on health and safety in the world especially in Britain. This will also help us to get information on Company infrastucture as a whole. Documents Documents can be treated as a source of data in their own right. In effect it can be an alternative to questionnaires, interviews or observation. This includes published materials of company details Data analysis In order to analyze the data both quantitative and qualitative research has to be performed. Qualitative research In qualitative research words are the units of analysis. Qualitative research tends to be associated with description. The data needed for qualitative analysis has to be gathered from interviews and questionnaires. Methods like ethnography will be used for the process of qualitative analysis and ethnographic data storage software will be used to store information. There are many advantages of using such software which will help store the data safely, the data can be coded easily, and retrieval of data will be more reliable. Computerization removes barriers and scales to the scale and complexity of analysis. There are virtually no clerical limits to how much stuff you get now, and few to how complex it is. (Richards and Richards 1993:40) Quantitative research Quantitative research tends to be associated with numbers, as the unit of analysis and it tends to be associated with statistical data. Charts and graphs have to be constructed from the figures and information gathered from the questionnaires and researches. Word processing and spreadsheet packages can be used for this purpose. Information in the form of numbers will be gathered from Company Mangers by using different data collection tools like questionnaires, review of previous documents etc. and the data will be used to construct meaningful figures and charts using software. Form of Presentation The dissertation will be presented in a written form supplemented with charts showing current and historical data. Projected Findings The importance of health and safety measures in the construction industries and the methods used in Britain. Research Time table Months (FEB-MAY) MONTHS FEB MAR APR MAY WEEKS 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 Problem Identification Literature Review Research Design Choice of Methodology Data Sources Data Collection Data Analysis Writing up Draft Editing Final Document Binding of Document REFERENCES: Phil Hughes (MSc, FIOSH, RSP.), Ed Ferrett , Introduction to health and safety in construction, Butterworth-Heinemann; 2 edition (2005) Alan Griffith, Tim Howarth, Construction health and safety management, Longman (2001) Vivian Ramsey, Construction law handbook, Thomas Telford Ltd (2007)   Richard Fellows, David Langford, Robert Newcombe, Sydney Urry, Construction Management in Practice, WileyBlackwell; 2nd Edition edition (2001) http://www.forthconstruction.co.uk/downloads/an-introduction-to-health-safety.pdf accessed on 14/12/09 at 5.30 pm http://www.engineeringpage.com/technology/safety/safety_induction.html accessed on 14/12/09 at 6.00 pm http://www.hse.gov.uk/construction/index.htm accessed on 14/12/09 at 6.00 pm http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/149934.php accessed on 14/12/09 at 10.30 pm http://www.profkrishna.com/ProfK-Assets/CAFEOPaper.pdf accessed on 15/12/09 at 8.30 pm http://eprints.utm.my/445/1/1A_5._Abdul_Rahim_Hazard_at_construction_site_PAGE_(95-104).pdf accessed on 15/12/09 at 11.30 pm http://rome.angloinfo.com/countries/italy/work13.asp accessed on 15/12/09 at 12.30 am http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/hsc13.pdf accessed on 16/12/09 at 1.30 pm http://www.london.gov.uk/assembly/reports/health/construction.pdf accessed on 16/12/09 at 5.30 pm http://www.healthandsafety.co.uk/conregs.htm accessed on 16/12/09 at 10.00 pm